Media In The Game Of Cricket In India

Media In The Game Of play In IndiaThis essay intends to argue that play in India has forged an unsatisfied juxtaposition of depicted object, regional and orbiculate identities. By looking at the pre and can independence periods in India and contemporary time, the essay will show that these identities fool differed or developed according to content or, regional global victimizations of the time.2.0 play during British Indiacricket was first introduced by the British in 1721 when they were vie on a western Indian beach (Bose 1990, p.16).The early long time of cricket was a platform for communal identities by-line the British mete out and swayer policy which also involved many cacophonous bring forth constitutional reforms and legislations ( Stern 2003, p.19). For instance, communalism in the midst of the Indians and Muslims found expression in the Pentagular cricket tourney in 1937 that had team ups pitted against each other along their phantasmal backgrounds (Bose 1 990, p.33.) These tensions persisted beyond the Partition in 1947 which resulted in the population of Pakistan, as cricket in India acquired flag-waving(a) everywheret champions above and over the existing communal identities. cardinal might expect that any colonial legacy would be strongly resisted by the colonized. On the contrary, cricket was embraced in India as a field blue and this should largely be attributed to Gandhis nationalist movement which was principally focussed on non violence and love. He had urged people to accept the British for their adept deeds and ignore their evils (Bose 1990, p.17). This simply cerebratet that cricket would ordinaryly be certain by the Indians as one of the benign effects of the imperial rule after independence. Hence, despite deepening communalism, cricket at this stage served as a consolation to many Indians who had been subjected to years of systemic oppression.3.0 Post- independence stintingal developments and cricketThe end of British occupation in India marked the kickoff of cricket as a vehicle for diversion as wellhead as the appropriation of nationalism and consumerism.Under President Nehru, cricket became a tamasha spectacle as he was an alert promoter of the indorse. Un want the British, the patch could non be played politely forwards an elite crowd in India. Instead, due to the exuberant nature of the heap, cricket in India had to be celebrate like a festival with popular Indian celebrities like Dilip Kumar attendance the feistys (Bose 1900, p.37, 165, 218). One can attribute the festivity nature of the bouncy to the economic development in India. Since India adopted economic socialism, a hybrid beat amidst socialism and capitalism, masses from villages started coming to the cities to look for job opportunities (The fantan of Commonwealth of Australia 1998, p.3). As a result, the value of entertainment took precedence over nationalistic sentiments as cricket became a informant of escapism that allowed these masses to overcome the drudgery and hardships of their daily bouncys. Furthermore, in the absence of one mean solar day test paires during this period, cricket was played over five days and thence became a definite source of entertainment.Conversely, the appropriation of cricket primarily as an identity for entertainment has resulted in critics belong to the higher strata of the Indian decree to argue that India has failed to generate a body of cricket literature beyond journalism (Sen 2005, p.95). These critics believe that o temptg to the rich tradition and history of the game in India, cricket should not be confined within the spheres of entertainment but kinda be used to document the progress and development of the nation. Hence, this criticism exposes the possibility of existing tensions amid various classes in India regarding the general appropriation of cricket as a source of entertainment.3.1 The intervention of media in the game of cricke t in India3.2 Assertion of Global/ National IdentitiesIt would be unjust to affirm that the value of entertainment has wholly displaced the nationalistic overtones associated with cricket in India. With membership of the state being a crucial source of national identity, the Indian media has played an integral role in genteelness a strong connection in the midst of citizens and the nation through the televising of cricket matches involving the Indian national team (Mahajan 2005, p.120).The increasing commercialization of the game burn nationalism as Indians looked towards cricket to assert their global identity. With the screening of one day test matches on television, many Indians could now bask in glory by watching their nation frequently defeat fiscal powerhouses and developed nations, like its former colonizer, England, at the game of cricket. Cricket thusly transformed into a barometer of a nations self worth and a bill for global and regional dominance. For instance, in 2001, the controversial dismissal of Sachin Tendulkar for cheating in a game umpired by Mike Dennes resulted in a massive uproar in India as effigies of Dennes were burnt and the Board of Control for Cricket in India threatened to withdraw itself from the International Cricket Council. This exemplifies the interlink between cricket and global identity as Indians regard the accusations of cheating as an insult on their nation (Crick 2007, p.5).The media has also been instrumental in dissemination the game to the remote villages in India. As a result, smaller towns started to commence players who made it into the national team. For instance, the rural village of Jallandher is the birth place of renowned Indian cricketer, Harbajhan Singh, while Mohammed Kaif hails from Allahabad (Ugra 2005, p.88). Since the national team is made up of players belonging to various regions and religions, it may seemingly reflect the collective identity and nationalistic spirit of India. However, this collective identity seems artificial and uneasily juxtaposed between communal identities. For instance, Muslims in India be still being accused of financial support Pakistan during India- Pakistan matches (Crick 2007, p.5). Although Guttmann(2003, p.369) argues that sports can allow ethnic or religious minorities to be dissociate of the collective identity without forgoing their individual identities, the Indian case proves to be of contrary and suggests that it is difficult to forge a singular hegemonic national identity.In addition, with Indian Diaspora scattered throughout the world due to globalization, the Indian media has been super influential in helping these communities to cling on to their Indian identities through the televising of cricket matches (Majumdar 2008, p.129). However, this has led to the questioning of the allegiance of these immigrants to their newly adopted countries. For instance, the British Conservative Minister, Norman Tebbit once proclaimed that In dian immigrants in the unite Kingdom should display their loyalty to their new home by backup the English cricket team instead of the Indian team (BBC news program 2006). This essentially puts the Indian immigrants in a predicament as they are presented with two conflicting global or national identities India will bowl over them as traitors if they were to support any other country apart from India while, the countries that they live in would label them as sojourners if they elected to support India during the matches.3.3 Consumerism and cricket in IndiaNext, the close intertwine of cricket with consumerism has led to the creation of many secondary identities within the nation. Firstly, the liberalization of the Indian economy and the widespread effects of the media, meant that cricket had infiltrated the lives of the marginalised middle classes belonging to many of the rural areas in India (Sen 2005, p.103). This has resulted in the creation of a new consumerist society. These groups much do not know the nuances and technicalities of the game but adopt cricket as a reflection of their metropolitan life style and identity. For instance, these groups idolize cricketers as national celebrities and as a emblem of their metropolitan self. On the flip side, the appropriation of cricket provided as an identity for modernity might be resented by the puritans of the game who vehemently insist that the passion for the game can only be developed through the thorough understandings of its technicalities.Secondly, consumerism is also said to induct emancipate Indian womens role in cricket although, the game largely expects to have masculine connotations. Women have started to religiously follow cricket due to players like Rahul Dravid and Dhoni who are adored for their good looks. This marks a move apart from the ideal notion of an Indian char who is supposed to be conventional and domesticated. Furthermore, these women are not merely passive followers of t he game. They play active roles in cricket as well. For instance, on that point is a female Indian national cricket team and Bollywood actresses like Priety Zinta own local cricket teams. These women signal the arrival of the new modern yet feminine Indian woman who shares like interests of the game with her husband or male acquaintances (Sen 2005, p.105). However, there is a tendency by traditionalists to equate the modern Indian woman with westernization, therefore creating a possibility of a struggle between the value of the East and the West.Despite the apparent liberalization of women through cricket, ideas of masculinity associated with the game still force themselves through. The female national team does not submit the due recognition or exposure unlike its male counterpart. Furthermore, the front man of women in a game played and dominantly sentimented by men agent that these women would still be objectified and may be treated as intimate fantasies. This certainly expo ses the tension between the masculine identity and the identity of the turn Indian woman within the nation.Last but not least, the lowering monetizing of cricket in India also marked the beginning of match furbish up and gambling scandals. During the period of 2000-2001, India was embroiled in match fixing scandals following the arrest of South African cricket captain Hansie Cronjie (Majumdar 2004, p.310). As a consequence, the national identity fostered by the game suffered a major comforter as masses began to lose their romanticisation with cricket and started to doubt the performances of the national team. This illustrates that global developments can have significant impact in the formation of a national identity.4.0 Cricket in contemporary time4.1 fervid nationalism (Jingoism)During recent times, Indian nationalistic aspirations associated with cricket has transcended beyond patriotism and developed into jingoism. The nature of one day test cricket matches mean that the f inal outcome of the games is of the utmost importance to an Indian cricket fan. Since cricket victories have become the platform to the Indian nations assertion in the global and regional arena, there has been immense pressure on the national team to churn out victories. Whenever the team lost, Indian cricket fans would behave in an extreme and appalling manner. For pillow slip, when India lost to Australia during a World Cup match in 2003, fans burnt the effigies of the Indian players and carried out mock funeral processions of the players outside their homes. This is dry because it was the same fans who celebrated the success of their team which defeated Pakistan in the tournament by placing players like Sachin Tendulkar and Saurav Ganguly on a pedestal and worshipping them as gods during the Hindu festival of Shivarathiri (Majumdar 2004, p.346). Moreover, fans have become more vocal in expressing their dissatisfaction with the Indian national teams affairs, signalling their inc reasing stake in the game. For instance, following crowd dearie Gangulys exclusion from a test match, widespread protests erupted in Kolkata as fans serve up road blockades and carried out mock hangings of the team coach(Express India 2005).4.2 India- Pakistan rivalry continues in CricketThe political tensions within the South Asiatic region continue to exist since the Partition in 1947. Cricket therefore remains a battleground and a reflection of India- Pakistans hostile sentiments with one another. Mahajan (2005, p.117) argues that history continues to affirm the politics of friends and foes and the relationship between India and Pakistan is of no exception. The history starting from the aversion between the National Indian Congress and the Muslim League before independence, the bloodshed during the Partition and the continuing struggle over the control of Kashmir carries on to reinforce enmity between some(prenominal) nations (Mcleod 2008, p.1). As such, cricket cannot be p layed as a normal and friendly game between both teams.Furthermore, the matches do not symbolize a competition between two sporting nations. Instead, the anathema of communalism kicks in as India- Pakistan matches become a faceoff between the Hindus and Muslims. Muslims in India are also viewed suspiciously whenever these two teams clash. Hence, this supports the view that the collective national identity forged by cricket in ethnically diverse India has struggled to transcend beyond the considerations of religion.Besides, Indian politicians and the media have go on to exacerbate the relationship between the nations in the name of nationalism. For instance in 2003, following India s victory over Pakistan in a one-quarter final match, the ruling party at the time, Bharata Janata Party (BJP), announced that the national players need not pay income tax for their payments arising from the match (Crick 2007, p.10). The BJP thus appropriated the win to reinforce their communalistic sent iments and quest for a dominant Hindu ideology in India. The Indian media on the other hand, fuels nationalistic sentiments by dramatizing the matches between the nations. Newspapers often represent India- Pakistan matches with imagery of war (Chatterjee 2004, p.625 Dasgupta 2004, p.577).However, attempts at mending the ties between both the nations need to be acknowledged. For instance, the India Pakistan Goodwill cricket series in 2004 was a diplomatic plan to forge a stronger relationship between both nations (Hutton 2008, p.146). Whether cricket will propagate peace within the South Asian region or will be continued to use as a declaration for fervent nationalistic and communalist sentiments, ultimately lies in the give of the politicians.4.3 Cricket continues to represent the Indian DemographicDespite the uneasy coalition of various identities, it needs to be conceded that cricket continues to represent the demographic in India. To illustrate this view, the Oscar nominated Bo llywood film, Laagan, will be used as an example because films play a large role in Indians lives. Laagan was based on a real life incident that occurred in 1911. A group of bare footed Indian players from Mohun Bagun had defeated an English team in a game of soccer (Ugra 2005, p.91). However, with certain modifications to the screen play, the filmmakers decided to conform the incident using the popular Indian game of cricket instead of soccer. This shows us the extent that cricket has become a modern symbol of the Indian national identity as the movie goers were able to pose themselves with the popular sport. It is highly doubtful that the movie would have been well sure by the masses if it was based on any other game apart from cricket.5.0 ConclusionCashman (1980, p.111) argues that a cricket crowd is the reflection of the homogeneity of a nations population. However, this must be viewed with reservations in the case of India because cricket has been a vehicle for the expressio n of various alternative identities. Despite dominantly representing the aspirations of a threesome world Asian country on the international stage, Indian cricket has also created contradicting identities within the nation itself. It is further contended that these differing identities have gone on to aggravate political tensions within the South Asian region as demonstrated by the India- Pakistan matches. It is hence concluded that India will only be able to foster a singular Indian identity through cricket if it is able to reflect each and every communitys diversity in the universal (Carens 2000, p.166-73).

Strategies for Organizational Structure

Strategies for organisational twist1.1 organisational StructureOrganizational Structure is the strategic manner by which arrangings fix up (or rearrange) themselves (Galbraith, 1973). This is essentially important in de landmarkining how boldnesss plan on utilizing their resources , curiously their human resources. To do so high-octanely, current questions posit to involve precise answers much(prenominal) as the specific responsibilities of each angiotensin converting enzyme(a) at bottom the judicature, to whom on the button they report and most importantly the coordination process that is to be enforced to rent together all these mass and processes simultaneously.Bearing in mind that each frame lam followed needs to be consistent with the organizations main objectives, a buckram channel defining the lines of authority from top to bottom (i.e. Hierarchy of Authority) is naturalized which identifies clearly who is responsible for which personnel and/or tasks (Per row, 1986). Traditionally, the authority of decision- do has been a modify process (i.e. directed to higher- direct trouble), but with increase challenges first appearance in novel times, many organizations now encourage a decentralized decision devising model which moots its members the authority to control decisions without the need to consult their superiors. This has the advantage of producing a real-time response to problems by people who ar specialized in that process opus at the resembling time giving employees certain autonomy which creates a sense of job satisfaction and motivation. However this could malarkey to the undermining of upper counsel if non tackled properly. at that place exist 2 primary election dimensions to organisational structureThe Vertical Dimension relates to the hierarchy within a company by distinguishing the decision makers and people in charge. such organizations atomic number 18 considered to admit either a tall or a monotonic structure (See Fig.1 in Appendix A). It intromits the Span of controller of these individuals, which look ups to the topic of people they are responsible for and in effect, those groups who report to a unmarried passenger vehicle (these differ in quantity shankd on the nature of the work, skill-sets available, organisational culture, management style and level of Formalization, i.e. documentation of processes, rules and regulations (Noshria, 1991). Due to the high number or levels found in a Tall Structure ( burn down exceed twelve), managers tend to have a Narrow Span of Control where solely 5 or 6 people report to any single executive program. The converse holds for Flat Structures which have a Wide Span of Control where up to 10 to 12 people could be reporting to a single manager, depending on the tasks involved. In short, the taller the structure, the more than the Span of Control decreases.The crosswise Dimension addresses the division and assignment of tasks and func tions across various departments within the organization. such organizations are considered to be either wide or narrow.The structure that an organization adopts for itself is contingent upon a number of conditions like its products and services, the configuration of customer base it caters to, the business strategy it employs and the management of several(predicate) departments processes. The most common land organizational types can be assort as follows (Fontaine, 2007)The Functional Structure which is more in line with the Vertical Dimension is perhaps the most common structure in the business world due to its simplicity and ease. By this structure, organizations set up themselves into different departments with similar skill-sets, managed by several(prenominal) hotshot who is an complete in that trade. (See Fig.2 in Appendix A) (Ouchi Dowling, 1974)The Divisional Structure is more concerned with utilizing people with similar abilities across the entire business, wher ever the need whitethorn be. Thus such a structure lies within the Horizontal Dimension. Such divisions may be based on different product lines, consumer markets and heretofore up geographical markets. (See Fig.3 in Appendix A)The Matrix Structure is an incorporation of both Functional and Divisional Structures, although interestingly, it operates like neither. The foundation of this structure is still running(a) however different invents would require the pooling of these human resources from the various departments to serve their purpose. The excogitate managers borrow their staff who are then involved in the project from start to finish. This is sometimes a challenge as there is a limited number of staff in each department and each project would have its own specific needs. However it is the most efficient of all organizational structures. (See Fig.4 in Appendix A) (Davis Lawrence, 1977)The Horizontally Linked Structure is a relatively new concept whereby an organization gr oups its people along the value chain of activities and processes that produce, market, deliver, and service the firms offerings (Spector, 2007). (See Fig.5 in Appendix A)1.2 Organizational acculturation market-gardening is a complex yet powerful force familiarise in any organization that en clutcheses its workers values, smells, attitudes, fashion and shared assumptions. It is the moral compass that guides individuals in their actions at an unconscious level in all aspects of its congenital and outside dealinghips. Organizational Culture can be identified by 4 basic types (Cameron Quinn, 1999) (See Fig.6 in Appendix A)Collaborative (Clan) Culture This sort of culture is characterized by its open and friendly environment where people actually invest a lot of themselves in the work they do. A family transcription is at play where managers play parental and/or mentor figures. There is a commodious deal of focus on group coordination consensus, and the organizations belief is that its greatest assets are its workers. occasion (Adhocracy) Culture Entrepreneur and Innovative skills are highly valued in this culture with focus on individual initiative and freedom. The organization thrives by being market leader by continually introducing new products or services , hence their stress upon risk-taking measures and experimentation as a unifying quality. Long-term strategies focus on proceeds and acquiring new resources.Control (Hierarchy) Culture Behavior is governed by a strict set of rules and policies in this setting. Formal structures intend on maintaining settlement and low cost of their product with workers being commended on their performance, power and consistency. leading are required to be efficiency-conscious with ultimate remnants of security and predictability.Compete (Market) Culture This culture is perhaps the most cut-throat of all with worker rivalrousness and goal oriented. Leaders need to be demanding, active and most importantly ro bust with the common unifying goal of success. The organization is in a never-ending battle to increase market share and penetration by providing competitive pricing and holding the position of market leader. Long-term focus is on achieving measurable goals and targets, and building a strong reputation.It is important to understand that no adept culture is wagerer than the other. Each culture plays a diminutive role in an organizations success so long as it is in sync with the organizations goals. Recent studies conducted have shown that even within a single organization, there may exist multiple cultures (sub-cultures) besides the dominating one which once again should not be construed as a b missball element. In fact many scholars believe the existence of sub-cultures to be a source of healthy competition and the driving force fag end innovation within the indus give. The sagacity of organizational cultures is equally important for managers and owners not solely to be aware of their employees needs but also in scheming a workplace that complements such a culture.1.3 Effects on transmission lineThe relationship among Organizational Structure and Culture is one that is not clearly distinguishable. In general, the structure is designed to exist within a particular culture , in effect, aiding the culture to run with the consistency and efficiency that would be the sign of a successful brass. Thus, organizational structure is originally concerned with the apparatus of the culture. Traditionally, certain cultures have been associated with certain structures and each of these setups have their benefits and disadvantages.Functional Structure + Control Culture Since centralized decision devising is prevalent here, top-management is in control of most aspects of the business. This could be beneficial if the management is highly skilled and there isnt as much competence on the lower levels of the business but could be equally disastrous if such skills are in short supply in management. As a bonus, employees have the opportwholey to learn a great deal from their seniors which could military service in their career paths to take on decision making positions. Since this setup fosters stability and efficiency, there is disclose collaboration with similar processes per group while making use of the economies of scale. The biggest disadvantage here is of lack of communication not only in the midst of the different levels of the hierarchy but also between the different departments , leading to serious conflicts. This in turn affects each individuals antecedence on goals which tend to be more department-focused than that of the organization as a whole. Customers are usually also affected by such systems where they are passed on from department to department regarding issues they might have.Divisional Structure + Create Culture Since the structure is one which brings together different departments and the culture one in which individuals are encouraged to think innovatively, the result is a well-functioning unit with greater opportunities to learn about the different aspects of the business. In addition to better response time to customers issues due to greater accountability, the wider span of control helps in developing managerial and executive skills. The disadvantage here is of a great deal of duplication of tasks because of the different units with all departments in it performing the same function. This also spells out a reduction in specialization as well as a great deal of in-house competition between the different divisions of the business.Matrix Structure + Compete Culture The efficiency of this model is extremely high due to the continuous utilization of highly skilled personnel from different departments on different projects. Since these sorts of projects depend on a vast amount of expert knowledge, individuals often have the authority to make critical decisions which also exposes others to a great am ount of learning say-so, even in scopes of fields beyond their own. Also departmental conflict is reduce due to the regular re-shuffling between projects , rather the competition is between different teams. Unfortunately it is because of these same hasty groupings that employees can tend to get foreclose and confused about their new functions and who they now report to. Also a great deal of time is wasted in meetings to decide on the allocation of these valuable human resources.The above examples were just a few of many forms of different structures and cultures combined. It is important to note that for the specific needs of a particular business, some forms of combination of any 2 factors could serve them better than if the same set-up were used elsewhere. Numerous factors need to be taken into consideration before a decision is reached on which option is to be implemented , and it may also require the trial-testing of the different combinations practically before anything conc lusive can be said in that regard.1.4 Individual BehaviorThe term Organizational Behavior actually relates to the collective dominant behaviors of individuals within an organization. As such positive individual behavior would have the potential to do the pursuance in an organization (See Fig.7 in Appendix A). The factors which distinguish a happy satisfied employee from a disgruntled unmotivated employee are highlighted in the MARS Model of Individual Behavior (McShane Von Glinow, 2008) which identifies 4 elements effecting employee performance Motivation, Ability, use Perception and Situational Forces (See Fig.8 in Appendix A)Motivation is the set of internal captures behind an employees voluntary actions. In the workplace Maslows hierarchy of needs describe the basics that serve such actions (Maslow, 1954) take 1 Physical the need for air, water, food for thought exercise, rest, freedom from diseases disabilitiesLevel 2 Security the need for job security, guard working cond itions and overall stabilityLevel 3 Social the need for being loved, a sense of belonging, inclusion and workplace camaraderieLevel 4 Esteem the need for recognition, prestige and promotionLevel 5 Self-Actualization The need for autonomy, development and creativityAn employees Ability are the natural aptitudes and learn capabilities that are required to successfully complete a task. This requires proper analysis of a persons core competencies and then matching them with the withdraw job.Role Perceptions refer to the beliefs held about what behavior is required to achieve the end results which include an understanding of what tasks need to be performed, their relative importance and preferred behaviors to accomplish them.Situational Factors compensate the environmental conditionals beyond an individuals short-term control that constrain or assuage behaviors such as time, people, budget and work facilities.Types of Behavior in OrganizationsA significantly important aspect influen cing organizational behavior is a persons reputation. Personality can be described as a set of feelings and behaviors that have been significantly formed by genetic and environmental factors and that explain a persons behavioral tendencies. Some major forces influencing personality include cultural and genic forces, family relationships and tender class. These factors along with others, contribute towards the 5 big personality dimensionsnakedness to Experience Sensitive, FlexibleConscientiousness Careful, DependableExtroversion Outgoing, Talkative agreeableness Courteous, CaringNeuroticism Anxious, HostileThe importance of the study of different behavioral patterns is essential in unleashing the potential of any organization by unleashing the potential of all individuals who work therein. The Locus of Control determines the degree towards which individuals believe their behaviors influence what happens to them. Whereas Internals believe in their efforts and abilities Extern als believe events are mainly due to external causes. It is the presence of such personalities spread throughout an organization which deems necessary appropriate maneuvers to maintain positive behavior in as many of its employees as possible. In addition to the benefits already discussed brought about by such behavior to organizations, an equally important aspect is that of self-efficacy and motivation. The ability to adapt ones behavior to a effrontery situation is not only an important learning instrument but a vital quality to have in your self-denial in order to cope with the different cultures that now exist within organizations, while retaining ones unique identity. Furthermore the visualization of reactions to constraints posed to oneself might give them a clearer idea of the reactions of others to the same situation and possible tactics to speak it better.1.5 Organizational speculationOrganizational theories can be broadly categorise as followsClassical Organizational Theory deals with formal organization and its concepts to ameliorate upon management efficiency.i) Taylors Scientific Management Approach (1947) This shape up focused on achieving efficiency, standardization, specialization and simplification brought about by the planning of work. It also dysphoric on mutual respect between management workers to increase productiveness by implementing measures to reduce physical emotional stress of workers, providing them with appropriate bringing up to develop their capabilities and by eliminating the traditional boss concept. Taylor suggested 4 principles of scientific management for improved productivity An employees work should be tackled in a scientific methodology, rather than by a rule-of-thumb. Hiring of members should be based on some analysis who are then trained, taught and developed. Management should apply a policy of cooperation rather than conflict with labors to achieve goals. Training of workers be carried out by experts us ing scientific methods.ii) Webers Bureaucratic Approach (1947) This approach took into consideration the organization as a segment of broader society, but was criticized for its rigidness, impersonality, unfeasible to bigger objectives and lack of initiative to improve status (Hicks and Gullett, 1975). The basis of the approach was on the following principles Existence of hierarchy system with clear amounts of responsibility and authority delimitate for each position. Rules and Regulations should govern the behavior of organizations to maintain predictability and stability. Hiring and selection of employees should be impartial. Designations and not people should be delegated responsibility and authority to maintain democracy.iii) Fayols Administrative Theory (1949) This theory relates to the accomplishment of tasks and touches on management principles functions and concepts of line, staff committees. Productivity of technical and managerial work can be improved by dividing and/or specialization of the work. Authority and due responsibility are essential in achieving organizational objectives. Being answerable to and taking orders from a single supervisor would be most efficient in unity of command. All members of the organization should have a common goal to provide them with direction. Organizations interests should be given priority over individual and/or group interests. Measures to retain employees by several methods (e.g. time incentives, bonuses, profit-sharing, etc.) Management should utilize a blended system of both centralized decentralized decision making. Members on the same level of hierarchy should work together to accomplish work (Scalar chain). The organization should try to establish equity, fairness and justice. Employees should be given time to settle into their work and be assured of the security of their jobs. Members should be encouraged to show initiative. Measures to confirm unity and allegiance should be practiced which would yield better performance. construct of line and staff holds equally as important in organizations as anywhere else. Members from different departments at same hierarchal level can form committees around common goals. Functions of management include planning, organizing, training, commanding and arrange functions (Fayol, 1949) as well as staffing, directing, reporting and budgeting (Gulick Urwick, 1937).Neoclassical Theory bemuse light upon the importance of individual group behavior and good social relations between all hierarchal levels to improve productivity as a result of high-morale brought about by such measures (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1943). The neoclassical approach was based on the following principles All members of an organization should be toughened with the respect that a human deserves rather than be classified as a tool and as such requires fulfillment beyond stinting and security factors. The approach highlighted informal groups at work within the formal organiz ation and its importance. Workers should be allowed opportunities in decision making processes that would allow for a new and more effective form of management besides increasing productivity.Modern Theories define an organization as a designed and coordinate process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks and Gullet, 1975). The theories can be broadly classified as followsi) The Systems Approach This takes on the view that organizations are composed of systems and sub-systems which are mutually certified on each other and may be composed of some components, functions and processes (Albrecht, 1983). So the organization has 3 basic elements (Bakke, 1959)1. Components that include the individual, formal and informal organization, patterns of behavior emerging from role demands of the organization, role comprehension of the individual, and the physical environment in which individuals work.2. Linking processes like communication, balance and decision making between the d ifferent components to operate in an organized and correlated manner.3. Organizational Goals like growth, stability and interaction between all members of the organization.ii) Socio-Technical Approach This considers an chemical equilibrium between people (the social system), techniques knowledge (the technical system) and consumers (the external environment) to be of great significance in determining the organizations effectiveness (Pasmore, 1988).iii) The Contingency or Situational Approach The situational approach takes into account that as organizations are highly dependent of their external environments, there can be no universal guidepost suited for all situations (Selznick, 1949 Burns and Stalker, 1961 Woodward, 1965 Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967). The contingency approach suggests that social, legal, political, technical and sparing factors need to be taken into consideration before determining an organizations relations to different environments (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1973) .

Environment Essay: Mitigation Measures

Environment Essay Mitigation MeasuresChapter 3 Reducing Emissions From dis timbreation Forest Degradation (REDD)3.1 Genesis and emergence of REDDThe current outside(a) clime diversify framework is a long way from delivering the firings reductions required for a orbicular stabilisation target necessary to give the world a realistic chance of limiting spheric warming to 2c equivalent to atmospheric CO2e at 445-490ppm or misfortunateer. Further strong and imperative concerted international lay oution volition be needed from both unquestionable and exploitation countries to go out this goal across exclusively domains attach energy efficiency Reduce demand for expellings intensive goods and services deal to lower atomic number 6 technologies for transport and industrial sectors Action on non-energy arcs much(prenominal) as de woodsation.Different mitigation measures are required for different sectors as menti angiotensin-converting enzymed above with emphasizing mor e on sets sector which is the main stretch of this paper. It is estimated that in the absence of some(prenominal) mitigation efforts, spark from the lumber sector alone lead increase atmospheric coulomb received to around 30ppm by 2100, at which the current atmospheric CO2e levels stand at 433ppm agree to the analysis of Eliasch reexamine (2008). Thus there is certainly urgency for forests to be a central part of either worldwide humor assortment deal by placing it in the top priority as it is increasingly accepted that mitigation of climate change will non be achieved without the inclusion of forests fully into the framework in post 2012. Part of the exposition for this is that forests offer the greatest single opportunity in tackling climate change and to melt off speed of light outpourings spryly and cost- stiffly as opposed to developing and inventing expensively new technological infrastructure and when compared with abatement in other sectors. This is s ubstantiate by reports from Stern Review (2007) and IPCC AR4 (2007) in which deforestation accounts for nearly a fifth of global vitamin C emissions (18-25%), surprisingly a very satisfying and greater share second only to energy.Forests including woodlands play many roles in climate change mitigation through degree centigrade sequestration, emission reductions, and one C substitution. It has been estimated that 80% of the total emissions savings hold under the current communications protocol of the convention would be wiped out if the current forest loss in forested developing countries such as Brazil and Indonesia to continue until 2012 (Stern, 2008). presumptuousness this significant rate of forest loss worldwide, thus decrease emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) would undeniably make a major donation to see an emission stabilisation target by complementing measures such as afforestation, reforestation and restoration. These measures would increas e global hundred stocks by sequestering and storing atmospheric cytosine when new forests are planted and grow. Additionally, natural forests maintain carbon stocks and conveyancings, and act as a carbon sink besides other co-benefits including biodiversity conservation, eco body services, privation alleviation and livelihoods. The increased employ of wood-based biofuels and wood products with bioenergy crops plantation are options for carbon substitution.Currently developing countries redeem no obligations under UNFCCC to mitigate GHG emissions although virtually cases of deforestation are originating from tropic developing countries which accounts for over 1Gt per year of emission entrusting from deforestation in the tropics (Stern, 2007). However, developing countries can contribute to global emission reductions by hosting projects under the CDM which include both afforestation and reforestation projects. Measures on REDD were initially excluded from the land use, land u se change and forestry sector (LULUCF which is immediately referred to as agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) within the IPCC Guidelines for National nursery Gas Inventories as of 2006 for technical consistency) within the UNFCCCs CDM during CoP7 in Marrakesh. The accounting on REDD exclusion was due of the possibility that if incentives were provided for individual projects, the result would be displacement of deforestation activity elsewhere within a country, with fiddling or no net gain.Discussions for the inclusion of REDD was initiated at CoP11/MoP1 in Montreal during of late 2005, which marked the set-back step for entry into force of the Kyoto communications protocol on 16 February 2005. However, during the CoP13/MoP3 which was convened in Bali in celestial latitude 2007, agreed to what is known as the Bali Roadmap. The main advances in the roadmap are the commitments to be negotiated includingemphasising the development of appropriate constitution approach es and positive incentives that would lead to REDD and the role of forest conservation in the carbon handicraft regime, sustainable forest management and the forest carbon stock enhancementFinancing the adaptation needs of developing countries andFunding the transfer of low-carbon technologies to developing nations.The inclusion of REDD in the roadmap is seen as a way to send for environmental destruction by assigning value to intact forest ecosystems including peatlands and swamps. REDD has the potential to shift the balance of underlying economic market forces that soon in favour of deforestation, by alloting incentives and ultimately payments for the ecosystem services provided by forests in the tropical regions. REDD assign offer the opportunity to utilise depoting from developed countries to deoxidise deforestation in developing countries despite question on how to come back forest conservation for the following approaches to pay countriesfor reducing deforestation rela tive to a service line of past deforestation rates, and/or future(a) projections of deforestationaccording to a fixed formula based on forest area and/or the carbon stock represented.In general, forest destruction takes place because forest countries can make more bills by using the land for intensive agricultural activities, as they enamor the value of standing natural timber, then annual harvests of agricultural start such as beef, palm oil and soya beans (Tickell, 2008). Thus reward payments would therefore have to be sufficient to nourish forests from competing land uses and he suggested that countries would be rewarded based on maintaining agreed areasfor pure conservation, with no ontogenesis save that of indigenous or long-established peoplesfor limited, sustainable exploitation focussed on non-timber productsfor more intensive exploitation, including for timber but subject to certification for get managementof plantation, but including measures to protect soils, water and biodiversityof degraded and destroyed forest undergoing restoration and rehabilitation to one of the above categories.The deadline for reaching an agreement on the specifics of an international REDD chemical mechanism, at least as regards to it universe implemented in the short and medium term, is the CoP15 which will be held in Copenhagen in declination 2009. REDD take over faces many challenges especially in implementation as there are particular problems with regards to controlling these emissions owing totheir dispersed nature, making them onerous to control, and hard or indeed impossible to measure with accuracy.The difficulty of distinguishing with evidence between emissions that are of natural origin, and those that are due to deliberate military man interventionsIssues of national sovereignty in which some forest rich developing countries do not take kindly to other countries telling them what they whitethorn and may not do with their forests.These three factors make it inconceivable that these emissions should be controlled at source in the same way as emissions from other sources. There are to a fault many problems with the approach currently being developed under the framework to protect forests, which is to incorporate REDD within the carbon trading regime.While much of the deforestation under consideration is the result of legal land-use change and logging, there is also a significant counterweight that is illegal. If avoided deforestation is to become a credible element of an international system for controlling nursery shoot a line emissions, forest areas will have to be managed over the very long term and be subject to effective legal enforcement. It is not yet clear whether the necessary investment in standing forests will come from a public fund or private markets, but, if the latter is the case, it is likely that carbon captured in countries with effective forest law enforcement will be valued more highly than in those with poo r sectoral governance.3.2 Expectation for global climate deal at CoP15 duologue on commitments for the post 2012 period are on-going since CoP13/MoP3 in Bali in December 2007.Forest carbon emissions together with emissions from other sources are a global negative externality. The cost of each unit released into the atmosphere is not borne by the emitter. Instead the costs are imposed on the international fellowship as a whole in the form of exposure to the carbon toxification and damaging effects of climate change.There is currently no omnibus(prenominal) system that rewards REDD efforts although it brings global benefits. Thus it is reasonable that any international climate change framework should internalise the emissions from forests in order to incentivise forest nations to protect and conserved their natural standing forest from deforestation and degradation. consort to the Eliasch Review (2009), there are likely three criteria that a successful international climate change f ramework should affectEffectiveness to deliver the emission reductions at required scale by tackling three major challenges, that is, leakage, additional and permanence.Issues range from permanence (whether a county can ensure that forest carbon savings are permanent) to leakage (what happens when carbon conservation in one area drives deforestation in another?) to baseline data fundamental law (how does one measure historic deforestation to establish a baseline for calculating reduction?).Efficiency to minimise the overall cost of achieving the emissions reductions and equitable to ensure that the benefits of international action are distributed fairly.questions over land rights (will REDD stir up a land rush by industrial agriculture giants and forestry firms?) as well as how local communities will benefitThere is also ongoing squabbling between a coalition of forest nations and Brazil, which sees REDD as an strive to limit its economic development of the Amazon rainforest. So me forest-rich countries that have low deforestation rates have expressed concern they will be left out of the process since their forests are not under immediate threat.3.3 Sources of fundingDespite various concerns mentioned above, it appears likely the REDD initiatives will move forward. According to ITTO( ), funds are starting to flow to tropical countries via international REDD initiatives and self-imposed carbon offset projects. The potential to channel resources to tropical countries under any successor to the UNFCCCs Kyoto Protocol, which expires in 2012, will have to be amend significantly over present arrangements in order to have any impact. The level of assistance provided to tropical forests through the existing CDM has so furthermost been a bitter disappointment to many. The negative experience of the CDM in the relatively straight forward areas in which it has operated to date inspires little confidence in its ability to encompass the far trickier area of emission s from deforestation.Last week nightclub industrialized governments announced plans to put US$165 million (114 million) toward the cosmos Banks newly created Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, a scheme that will offer tropical countries carbon offset credits to preserve forests. The U.S. did not pledge any funds but some 30 tropical countries in Africa, Latin America and the Asia-Pacific stood to benefit from what the World Bank called the first financial mechanism to pay countries for saving their tropical forests. In the timbre of the progress on REDD, Governors from the Brazilian state of Amazonas and the Indonesian provinces of Aceh, Papua and West Papua agreed to a moratorium on logging until the carbon values of their forest lands is assessed.3.4 Linking to carbon marketsKyoto includes defined flexible mechanisms such as Emissions Trading, the Clean Development chemical mechanism and Joint Implementation to allow university extension I economies to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges, projects that constrain emissions in non-annex I economies, from other annex I countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances. In practice this means that non-annex I economies have no GHG emission restrictions, but have financial incentives to develop GHG emission reduction projects to receive carbon credits that can then be sold to annex I buyers, encouraging sustainable development. 4In addition, the flexible mechanisms allow annex I nations with efficient, low GHG-emitting industries, and high prevailing environmental standards to leverage carbon credits on the world market instead of reducing greenhouse liquid emissions house servantally. Annex I entities typically will extremity to acquire carbon credits as cheaply as possible, tour non-annex I entities want to maximize the value of carbon credits generated from their domestic Greenhouse Gas Projects.While t here is an urgent need to reduce emissions from deforestation, there are considerable dangers in including forests within the carbon trading regimes. This is because GHG emissions need to be cut both from forest destruction and from fossil fuels, that is not to trade the one off against the other. By putting carbon credits from REDD into the Kyoto Protocols carbon trading regime, the Annex 1 parties will be able to continue to pollute at will provided they offset their pollution by REDD elsewhere.Developing countries are not pass judgment to de-carbonize their economy unless developed countries supply enough funding and technology. Setting no immediate restrictions under the UNFCCC serves three purposesit avoids restrictions on their development, because emissions are strongly associate to industrial capacity,they can sell emissions credits to nations whose operators have difficulty meeting their emissions targets,they get money and technologies for low-carbon investments from th e developed countries in Annex II.Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed. universal but differentiated responsibilityThe United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to a set of a putting surface but differentiated responsibilities. The parties agreed thatthe largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse floates originated in developed countriesper capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively lowBrunei do have a high per capita emissionthe share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet social and development needs.China, India, and other developing countries were not included in any numerical limitation of the Kyoto Protocol, because they were not main contributors to the greenhouse gas emissions in the pre-treaty industrialization period. China has since become the largest greenhouse gas emitter.However, til now without responsib ility under the Kyoto target, developing countries were to share the common responsibility of all countries to reduce emissions.The protocol defines a mechanism of shape as a monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-complianceThe five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol arecommitments to reduce greenhouse gases that are legally binding for annex I countries, as well as general commitments for all member countriesimplementation to meet the Protocol objectives, to prepare policies and measures which reduce greenhouse gases increasing absorption of these gases and use all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, clean development mechanism and emissions trading being rewarded with credits which allow more greenhouse gas emissions at homeminimizing impacts on developing countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate changeaccounting, reporting and review to ensure the integrity of the Protocolcompliance by establishing a compliance comm ittee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.3.4 Institutional aspect for Designated National Authority (DNA)Among the annex I signatories, all nations have established Designated National politics to manage their greenhouse gas portfolios countries including Japan, Canada, Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Spain and others are actively promoting government carbon funds, supporting two-sided carbon funds intent on purchasing carbon credits from non-annex I countries, and are working closely with their major utility, energy, oil and gas and chemicals conglomerates to acquire greenhouse gas certificates as cheaply as possible. virtually all of the non-annex I countries have also established Designated National Authorities to manage the Kyoto process, specifically the CDM process that determines which GHG Projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM decision maker Board.

Culture of Conflict in the Philippines

Culture of contest in the FilipinosThe markers of globalisation much(prenominal) as the imperatives of economic liberalisation, fiscal reform, and migrant flows, which is one of tidal waves of global information, choose restructured social relations real only over the ball. Even though the globalisation has been called as an integrate force, cultural difference of opinions have presently become the most rampant and wide-cutspread form of planetaryist violence as globalisation has accelerated (Crawford, n.d.). Undoubtedly, it is express that members of any kind of culture brook hold varying degrees of commitments towards the overabundant values of such culture, however being in opposition to such cultural values can set the stage for cultural conflicts. A situation similar to preceding(prenominal) can clearly be seen by examining the continuing cultural conflict that the establishment of Philippines have with armed commie as well as Islamic rabble-rousing groups, which has been developed by dint of the international interventions (Peleo, 2007).Philippines has a long history of cultural conflict, with armed groups that primarily consist of Muslim separatists, clan militias, and communistics, and venomous all of which are alert in the country (BBC 2012). The Muslim separatists comprises the MNLF (Moro National firing off Front), the MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation Front) and the Abu Sayyaf. The Abu Sayyaf and The MILF are breakaway groups of the MNLF (BBC 2012). On the other hand, the communist insurgency is propagated by the CPP (Communist Party of the Philippines) military wing, the NPA (New Peoples Army).Since the beginning of the communist insurgency in 1960s, the administration of Philippines has persistently fought with the benefit of its superior equipments, training, as well as communications. However, the giving medication failed to resolve the conflicts mainly owing to its failure of addressing the root causes of the communis t insurgency such as the social injustice, imperfect democratic process, inequitable scattering of wealth, and inconsistent delivery of services etc (Peleo, 2007). The Muslim insurgency can in like manner be regarded in an ambiguous way. In contrast to the communist insurgency, this campaign had non determined to replace the national administration through a revolution. Accordingly, the insurgency of the MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation Front) took a secessionist form with the intention of establishing a Muslim state in the areas of s show uphern Philippine island of Mindanao.The ongoing crusade between the Philippine government and the communist as well as Muslim guerrillas has the emergence of limited internal conflicts (Brown, 1996) that may be lick yet through negotiations and stricter law enforcements. However, the formal public security talks amongst and the insurgent representatives and the government began in the 1970s and keep on until today have yet to present a final ending to the armed cultural conflict. This conflict spreads through all aspects of Philippine governance Political and shelter (Peleo, 2007) and both the insurgents and the government have denounced each other since the cause of the muted development of the country. Furthermore, since the 1970s, the insurgents and the government have sought to boost international involvements in a domestic political conflict. Nevertheless, it can be note that the international support, recognition, as well as financial and material aid gained by the government as well as by the Muslim and communist insurgencies have not significantly diminished the hostility amongst the insurgents and Philippines government. Rather, the promise of such international aids for domestics cultural conflicts appears to both parties as a agency of gaining military advantage sand coercive political leverage.The evidences as to the international influences on cultural conflicts in many countries existing in the world d emonstrate that such international influences have not completely been useful in successfully avoiding or mitigating such cultural conflicts. In particular, Philippine insurgents have mainly been persuaded by the supposition that the strange governments continue to and nowadays influence the Philippines governance (Peleo, 2007). In other words, the decisions of beginning, intensifying, reducing, or ceasing armed resistivity have been encouraged by insurgents perceptions towards international supports for efforts of the national government for the anti-insurgent. passim history, the Philippines governments have all the time deferred to strange states decisions on a wide range of social, political, and economic issues. Especially, much of political culture of Philippines is able to be attributed to a variety of foreign influences. For instance, the Philippines country was a colony of Spain during the sixteenth century to the late 19th century and was redeveloped subsequently as a commonwealth by the US until 1935. It was also occupied by japan during the period of 2nd World War, and after its liberation, the country was aligned with the US till the end of the Cold War. Filipino insurgent groups were active passim these periods, and opposed not only foreign occupations but also the Filipinos who were express to be perceived as having gained the government office through foreign endorsements.The European Union and the United State have alleged that the topical anaesthetic insurgent groups in Philippines have expanded their capabilities and are regarded as the foreign terrorist organizations. These allegations, which were made from the perspective of the global war on terror, indicate that Philippine insurgents constitute a security threat not only for the government of Philippine but also for the US, the EU, and other foreign governments around the world. Accordingly, this regenerate international interest in the insurgent conflict in the Philippine and p rovides evidences to the insurgents durability and the continuing appeal as to the idea of resistance towards a collaborationist government (Peleo, 2007).According to Reuters (2014) Muslim rebels in Philippines, on twenty-seventh May 2014 has signed a final public security negotiation, to end the conflict together with the international supports from countries including the United State. However, as far as above facts pertaining to the perseveration of cultural conflicts in Philippines are concerned, this peace deal does not seems to work in long run since potential threats as to long-lived peace will remain, ranging from a petty breakaway of MILF faction to criminal groups, Islamist militants connected to al Qaeda as well as feuding clans (Reuters 2014). Moreover, the sustainability of peace talks between the Philippines government and insurgents may vary with the current government reactions and political stability of the country.In view of the above, it can be determine that a proper mechanism that goes beyond the peace talks is unavoidable for Philippines to cope with its cultural conflicts with various insurgents. Otherwise, it will be difficult to squeeze the implications of such cultural conflicts that were exercising by people such as cultural and religion division, barriers in building care and trust for people, the continuity of culture of violence, and exposure to an environment of armed conflict together with a violent family feuds, poor access to health, education and social services (Sumndad-Usman, 2014), all of which eventually lead people to suffer and turn into rebels or bandits.Hence, it is prudent for the Philippines government to specifically admit to the systemic weaknesses within its governing regime which can motivate insurgents to resist. The government may need to sacrifice its permit position as the victim of the insurgents security threats so that it can give up the legitimacy of grievance of insurgents. Although, this cours e of action may carries political jeopardize to a certain extent, in particular for the government of a small state depending on a big-power state for the security, such confidence-building measure can ultimately convince both the insurgents as well as the government and that their interests are served by eliminating armed conflicts from political interactions, and by ruling out foreign influences on national governance and security issues.ReferencesPeleo, A. (2007), Living with a Culture of Conflict Insurgency and the Philippines, Retrieved from http//www.politicalperspectives.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/CIP-2007-01-04.pdf, (Accessed on 30th September 2014)Crawford, B. (n.d.), globalization and Cultural Conflict An Institutional Approach, Retrieved from http//aannaim.law.emory.edu/ihr/worddocs/jamail1.doc, (Accessed on 1st October 2014)BBC (8 October 2012), Guide to the Philippines conflict, Retrieved from www.bbc.com/ tidings/world-asia-17038024, (Accessed on 2nd October 20 14)Sumndad-Usman, B. R.(25 July 2014), Building a Culture of Peace in the Philippines and Beyond, http//www.huffingtonpost.com/bai-rohaniza-sumndadusman/building-a-culture-of-pea_b_5529494.html, (Accessed on 2nd October 2014)Reuters (27 March 2014), Philippines, Muslim rebels sign final peace deal to end conflict, Retrieved from http//www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/27/us-philippines-rebels-idUSBREA2Q1W220140327, (Accessed on 2nd October 2014)